Understanding St. Augustine’s City of God: theology and philosophy

Introduction

St. Augustine’s City of God is one of the most significant works in Christian theology and philosophy. Written in the early 5th century amid the shockwaves following the sack of Rome, City of God addresses profound theological and philosophical challenges. In response to accusations that Christianity was responsible for Rome’s decline, Augustine presents two contrasting cities: the City of Man, marked by earthly desires and destined to fade, and the City of God, founded on divine grace and destined for eternal glory.

In this guide, we explore the historical context of City of God, its theological themes, and its lasting impact on Catholic thought. By delving into Augustine’s insights, we uncover how this work continues to inform the Church’s teachings and offers guidance for Catholics navigating today’s complex world.

1. Historical Context and Background

Written between 413 and 426 AD, City of God emerged during a time of turmoil. The sack of Rome in 410 by the Visigoths under King Alaric shook the Roman Empire. For the first time in centuries, “the eternal city” had been overtaken, leading many to question the stability of the world. Pagan critics blamed Christianity, suggesting that abandoning traditional Roman gods had led to divine retribution.

In response, Augustine defended the faith, using City of God to address these accusations and to articulate a theological vision that transcended the immediate crisis. As he writes, “Rome did not perish because it had accepted Christ; rather, it would have perished sooner had it rejected Him” (Augustine, City of God, I.29).

2. The Two Cities: Earthly and Heavenly

The central theme of City of God is the juxtaposition of two cities: the earthly city (Civitas Terrena) and the heavenly city (Civitas Dei). Augustine characterizes these as symbolic representations of human society and loyalty.

  • The Earthly City: Driven by self-love, pride, and a quest for power, the earthly city is marked by human sin and moral decay. Its allegiances are ultimately transient. As Augustine writes, “Two loves have made two cities: love of self, even to the contempt of God, made the earthly city; love of God, even to the contempt of self, made the heavenly city” (City of God, XIV.28). St. Thomas Aquinas further developed Augustine’s views in Summa Theologica, noting that the earthly city reflects humanity’s fallen nature and inclination toward vice (ST I-II, q. 109, a. 3).
  • The Heavenly City: The heavenly city is based on love for God, humility, and eternal life. In City of God, Augustine explains that, unlike the earthly city, which is marred by sin, the heavenly city embodies true justice and peace. He describes its citizens as those “who live according to God” (City of God, XV.1). Echoing this, the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) emphasizes that true peace is found only in communion with God: “For peace is not merely the absence of war…Peace is the ‘tranquility of order’” (CCC 2304).

These two cities represent intertwined realities, where Christians live within earthly structures yet maintain allegiance to the heavenly city. The earthly city can never achieve true peace, but as Augustine asserts, Christians must nonetheless strive to “seek the peace of the earthly city for the sake of the heavenly city” (City of God, XIX.17).

3. Key Theological Themes

City of God is deeply influential, shaping Christian doctrine on divine providence, the nature of evil, and the role of grace.

  • Divine Providence: Augustine affirms that God’s providence governs all history, directing it toward a greater purpose. This theme is central to City of God: “The just man lives by faith; he clings to the eternal, while in the temporal he endures what he must” (City of God, XIX.19). According to the CCC, “The fact that God permits physical and moral evil is a mystery that God illuminates by his Son Jesus Christ” (CCC 311). Augustine’s perspective helps Christians understand that history must be seen through the lens of God’s eternal plan, as articulated in Romans 8:28: “We know that in everything God works for good with those who love him.”
  • The Nature of Evil: Augustine’s philosophy addresses the problem of evil, describing it as a “privation” of good rather than a substance in itself. This insight counters Manichean dualism, which posits that good and evil are opposing forces. As Augustine explains, “Evil has no positive nature; but the loss of good has received the name ‘evil’” (City of God, XI.9). St. Thomas Aquinas reiterates this in Summa Theologica: “Evil is not a being, for all being, as being, is good” (ST I, q. 48, a. 1).
  • The Role of Grace: Augustine’s understanding of grace is foundational for Catholic teachings on salvation. He argues that humans cannot achieve salvation without God’s grace. “Without the grace of God,” Augustine writes, “we cannot do anything good, either in thought or deed” (City of God, XIX.4). The Church continues to draw on Augustine’s insights, teaching that “God’s initiative in the work of grace precedes, prepares, and elicits the free response of man” (CCC 2001).

4. Augustine’s Critique of Paganism

In City of God, Augustine refutes pagan accusations against Christianity. He critiques the Roman pantheon, arguing that these gods were morally corrupt and incapable of offering salvation. Augustine asserts, “The gods of the heathen are devils” (City of God, II.4). He contends that Rome fell due to its own moral corruption, not because of Christianity.

Augustine also engages with Greco-Roman philosophies, including Stoicism and Neoplatonism. He acknowledges the merits of these philosophies but insists they fall short without divine revelation. “Philosophy alone cannot provide the ultimate answers; only in God do we find true wisdom” (City of God, XIX.25).

5. Augustine’s Political Philosophy

Augustine’s thoughts on political authority and justice in City of God remain relevant for understanding the Church’s teachings on society and governance.

  • Justice and the Role of the State: Augustine argues that true justice exists only in the heavenly city. He famously states, “Justice being taken away, then, what are kingdoms but great robberies?” (City of God, IV.4). While the state can promote peace, it cannot attain perfect justice due to human sin. Vatican II’s Gaudium et Spes echoes this sentiment, recognizing that “man has an inescapable duty to seek justice and peace,” even in an imperfect world (GS 43).
  • War and Peace: Augustine lays the groundwork for just war theory, contending that wars may sometimes be necessary to protect the innocent but must always be waged as a last resort and with a peaceful outcome in view. As he writes, “Peace should be the object of your desire; war should be waged only as a necessity” (City of God, XIX.7). The Catechism reinforces Augustine’s principles, emphasizing that “the use of arms must not produce evils and disorders graver than the evil to be eliminated” (CCC 2309).

6. The Eschatological Vision

A major theme in City of God is Augustine’s eschatological vision, describing the end of times and the final triumph of God’s kingdom.

  • The End Times: Augustine details the Last Judgment, where the heavenly city will be fully revealed and the earthly city will pass away. He writes, “The wicked shall be separated from the good and condemned to eternal punishment” (City of God, XX.9). This vision aligns with Revelation 21:1-4, where the new Jerusalem is revealed, and God’s people dwell with Him in perfect communion.
  • Resurrection and the Afterlife: Augustine’s teaching on the resurrection is integral to Catholic eschatology. He emphasizes that Christians live in hope of resurrection and eternal life, as stated in 1 Corinthians 15:52: “For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised imperishable.” The CCC affirms this belief, noting that “hope in the resurrection of the dead has been an essential element of the Christian faith” (CCC 991).

7. Influence on Catholic Thought

City of God has profoundly shaped Catholic doctrine, especially on topics like grace, evil, and political authority.

  • Influence on Theologians: Augustine’s impact extends to figures like Thomas Aquinas, who drew heavily from City of God in developing his theological synthesis. Aquinas considered Augustine his greatest inspiration, often quoting him in the Summa Theologica.
  • Relevance to Vatican II: Augustine’s vision is reflected in Gaudium et Spes, which discusses the Church’s mission in the world, pointing toward the ultimate goal of salvation. The document states, “The Church, at once ‘a visible organization and a spiritual community,’ goes forward together with humanity and experiences the same earthly lot which the world does” (GS 40).

8. City of God in Modern Catholic Spirituality

Augustine’s work remains a profound source of reflection for Catholics today.

  • Application to Contemporary Issues: In a world marked by political instability, City of God offers a reminder that Christians should place their ultimate trust in God, not in earthly institutions. As Augustine puts it, “Our true country is elsewhere” (City of God, XIX.17).
  • Personal Spiritual Reflection: Augustine’s themes of humility, grace, and the transient nature of earthly pursuits provide Catholics with a framework for understanding their relationship with God. In his Confessions, he echoes this sentiment: “You have made us for yourself, O Lord, and our hearts are restless until they rest in you” (Confessions, I.1).

Conclusion

St. Augustine’s City of God remains a timeless masterpiece, providing wisdom for navigating faith, politics, and the human condition. It serves as a reminder that while Christians live in this world, their ultimate home is with God. The distinction between the earthly and heavenly cities underscores the Christian call to live with an eternal perspective, grounding our actions in faith, hope, and love.

Bibliography

  • Augustine, St. City of God. Translated by Henry Bettenson. Penguin Classics, 2003.
  • Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. University of California Press, 2000.
  • Catechism of the Catholic Church. Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1997.
  • Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica.
  • Vatican Council II. Gaudium et Spes.

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